This first chapter is a basic introduction to multimedia for learning. Thus, it begins with a short history of educational computing, which includes discussions on how the inventions of the microcomputer, Internet, and World Wide Web has impacted learning and effective instructional software. Then, the topic of appropriate uses to use computers to facilitate learning is discussed. One of the most important concepts in this chapter is the process of instruction. According to authors Alessi and Trollip, “Instruction should be the creation and use of environments in which learning is facilitated.” There are four phases of instruction that should occur in order for learning to be effective and efficient: presenting information, guiding the learner, practicing, and assessing learning. These four phases are along the same lines as Robert Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Presenting the information is simply introducing the learners to new information. This can be done a number of ways including rules, examples, pictures; of all of these, presenting information through example is one of the most important methods. Once the learner has been presented with the new information, then the next phase occurs—guiding the learner. This phase allows the learner to interact with the medium (instructor, computer, workbook, etc.) and allows for more interactivity. Thirdly, guidance is necessary in instruction because learners do not always learn all the necessary information from one single exposure to new information. After the learner has be guided through interacting with new information, it is then time for practice. Similar to the second phase, this is a more learner-centered approach. The learner must demonstrate that he or she currently understands the new material by performing. The medium the learner is interacting with should assess if the learner has mastered the new material, which is the final phase of instruction.

This chapter also provides brief explanations different types of methodologies for facilitating learning, which include tutorials, hypermedia, drills, simulations, games, tool and open-ended learning environments, test, and web-based learning. The authors carefully point out that many lessons combine methodologies as oppose to only using one. They also state that this book provides the basic groundwork for understanding and developing good interactive multimedia of either the instructivist or constructivist varieties.

Application to my project

I found this chapter to be helpful for me in my early stages of my project for two reasons.

1. I will be certain to include the four phases of instruction in my project. With the concept that I have in mind right now, I think I am missing the practice element; however, I think I know of a way to incorporate it that requires further investigation.

2. It also made me start thinking about the type of methodologies I would like to use in project. So far, I think I will combine a tutorial with a game; however, this is subject to change.

Chapter 2 covers a great deal of information about learning principles and approaches, which is extremely vital because developing effective materials that facilitate learning requires an understanding and appreciation of these principles and approaches. Three of these psychology principles are behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist. Behavioral principles are based on human reactions to stimuli. Most instructional system design procedures are based on behavioral psychology. Cognitive psychology, on the other hand, places emphasis on unobservable constructs including the mind, memory, attitudes, motivation, thinking, reflection, and other presumed internal processes. Because these constructs are intangible they are much harder to measure. Important factors to be aware of while adhering to cognitive psychology principles are position/placement of information, organization, repetition, active learning, locus of control, etc. This chapter also introduces two motivation theories: Malone’s and Keller’s ARCS. Malone theory includes four relevant factors challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy while Keller’s theory includes attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. Constructivists adopt the principle that the only reality is our individual interpretation of what we perceive because learning is a process of people actively constructing knowledge through discovery, cooperation, and collaboration. Each of these principles are constantly criticized in a constructivist-objectivist debate. However, the current world of educational philosophies is really a triangle, with behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism at vertices, and most educators are somewhat in the middle of that triangle. Thus, educators and designers should be careful in selecting a variety of multimedia materials, approaches, and tactics. “Instructional design is a series of compromises—a process of balancing multiple, worthwhile, but competing, goals, including achievement and motivation, time and money, learner and instructor satisfaction, initial learning and transfer of learning, and many more.”

Application to my project

There are a lot of principles to consider while thinking about designing my project. Although I would like to be like most educators in the “middle of the triangle,” I’m not quite sure how to incorporate a constructivist approach into my project with my knowledge and skill set. This chapter even suggests that as a beginning multimedia designer should start with the simpler and more directed methodologies before tackling more complex and constructivist methods. And I plan to take this advice and concentrate on straightforward methodologies.

There are instructional factors common to all interactive multimedia including introduction of the program, learner control, presentation of information, providing help, and ending a program. Most of the factors have sub-factors that should be considered as well.

When introducing a program to the learner, the program should begin with a well designed title page with pertinent information, simple and self-evident directions, and user identification (if applicable). Depending on the type of program and the expertise of the users, instructional designers and developers need to decide on the locus of control—what and how much control to provide the learner. Buttons, menus, and hyperlinks are two methods of control most often used in multimedia learning. All of them have advantages and disadvantages, so selecting the most appropriate method of control can be a difficult task. Not only are methods of control important to learner control, but also modes of control—how the learner actual controls the learning. Mouse controls are usually the primary mode of controlling buttons, menus, and hyperlinks; however, keyboard control is often used as a secondary mode of control. Speech control is a relatively new type of control that will become more common in the future. The authors provide a list of recommendations for user control.

How to present the information in a learning program depends on the purpose of the program and the users a great deal. Yet, there are still some general rules and general practices that should be considered, such as all techniques for presenting information should be consistent. The mode of presentation is extremely important—Should I use text, graphics, animations, sounds, video or a combination to reach my audience effectively? This section provides “do’s and don’ts” for each of type of presentation.

Even though the information may be presented correctly, it is always important to provide help for the learner at any particular time in the program. In addition, it is useful to distinguish between ending a program temporarily, such as when the user leaves but intends to return later, and ending it permanently, when all required parts have been completed or the learner is ready to terminate the program. Again, the authors provide recommendation for ending a program.

Application to my project

This chapter made a start a list of items that I would like to have in the project I am working on. Of course, I think the title page is needed; however, I’m not so sure that I will need directions or a help since the tutorial will be simplistic in navigation. Also, I’m not sure if I want to include user identification. I know the learners will probably like having their name displayed during and throughout the learning program, so I’m seriously considering it. As far as learner control, I plan to allow the learner to have some control, but not total control like in a constructivist approach. The main method of control is going to be buttons since I’m doing a flash tutorial. I plan on presenting the information is a fun and inviting manner that encourages the learner to want to continue with his/her learning. I plan to use a combination of text, graphics, bright colors, animations to present the information. I’m still debating if I want to incorporate sound or not. If I decide to do so, it will be after I’m done with everything else. And yes, I plan to end the program properly.

In this chapter, the authors propose a set of standards that should guide efforts; suggest ways of being creative; and introduce techniques for designing, developing, and integrating the various components of multimedia. The model presented is designed to be flexible, and it includes several important features. Standards, one of these features, are the starting point and the foundation of a good project. Once the foundation is laid, it is imperative to conduct an ongoing evaluation to ensure that the standards are consistently being applied throughout the project. In addition to these two, project management is essential. Good management of resources, money, and time can be the difference between a successful and unsuccessful project.

Intertwined with these three attributes are three phases: planning, design, and development. Planning is a vital phase that includes several tasks, such as determining the project’s goals, producing a planning document, and conducting initial brainstorming. Phase 2, design, deals with the activities of assembling the content and deciding on how it is to be treated from both an instructional and interactive perspective. And finally in the development phase, the design and concept of a multimedia program is taken and turn it into a robust product. Each phase involves a considerable amount of time and should not be skipped.

This chapter concludes with a thorough examination of establishing expectations. There should be a creation of a formal method of reviewing programs in order to set quality expectations—an evaluation form. The evaluation form should include the areas of subject matter, auxiliary information, affective considerations, interface, navigation, pedagogy, invisible features, robustness, and supplementary materials. All of the areas are discussed in detail; however, each project is different and designers should look at all the issues raised and establish their own standards and expectations for each item.

Application to my project

This chapter was full of helpful information especially tips about planning, designing, and developing. I’ve started working on some of the planning items—mostly lists. The items this chapter presents kind of serves as a checklist to make sure I am thinking about or completing each task suggested in each phase. Also, I’ve already started thinking and making a list of people who would make good evaluators of the product when the time comes. Hopefully, once I’m done planning everything will start lining up and falling into place.

Planning ensures a thorough understanding of what the project is all about as well as assessing all of the constraints. Once again while planning, it is imperative to adhere to the standards, ongoing evaluation, and good project management. There are several steps involved in the planning.

• Defining the scope of the content
• Identify learner characteristics
• Establish the constraints
• Cost the project
• Produce a planning document
• Produce a style manual
• Determine and collect resources
• Conduct initial brainstorming
• Define the look and feel
• Obtain client sign-off

Several of the steps involve interaction with the client. Defining the scope of the content drives the question “What are the desired outcomes of the project?” This scope should be written/signed off with the client. The client also plays a part in helping to point the designers in the right direction to identify learner characteristics. These characteristics need to be identified so that the program can be designed and development for the intended audience. In addition, it is important to establish the constraints (hardware, software, budget, time, responsibilities, permissions, etc.) under which the project runs and make the client aware of these constraints.

Planning also involves analyzing the cost and therefore the budget for a project. The authors break the cost down into several areas and provide a modifiable and printable version of this costing guide. After the cost of the project is established, a planning document should be produced. This planning document addresses the management of budget and time and personnel; it is important because often times the pressure to work on the project always seems more compelling than keeping track of details such as cost and time. Production of a style manual can be equally as important because it ensures that the standards are mutually agreed on by all team members and clients so there should be no misunderstandings.

Once all of the standards have been set, then it is time to determine and collect all resources that will be used throughout the remainder of the project including resources needed for evaluation. While and after the resources are collected, then is a good time for the project team members sometimes along with the client to conduct an initial brainstorming session where ideas are generated without criticism. Following the brainstorming session, the look and feel of the program needs to be defined with the client preferably in collaboration in real time—rapid prototyping. And finally, the planning phase concludes with obtain sign-offs from the client. The authors suggest that sign-offs should be gathered throughout the entire project not just in the planning phase.

Application to my project

I’m scheduled to have a planning meeting with my client, which I will provide her with a brief client guide to explain the steps of planning. I believe that establishing a good relationship with her early such as in the phase is the key to the success of my project.

The value of design is often misunderstood. Designers are responsible for linking the intended outcomes to the requirements and constraints of the project. He/she must use learning theory and the different methodologies to engage people in such a way that learning takes places in an effective and efficient manner. During this phase several design documents are produced and for various target audiences including but not limited to the instructional designers, clients, project manager, content experts/SME’s, trainers or teachers, learners, and production staff. Each of these audiences requires a different type of design document that caters specifically to their needs.

The design phase includes seven major components.

1. Develop initial content ideas.
2. Conduct task and concept analyses.
3. Do a preliminary program description.
4. Prepare a prototype.
5. Create flowcharts and storyboards.
6. Prepare scripts.
7. Obtain client sign-off.

Developing initial content ideas involves brainstorming content and learning approaches and eliminating some initial ideas based on items such as the learner analysis, relationships of ideas to the subject matter and goals, amount of time needed to learn the content, restrictions on the delivery system, and ability of the production staff. Once the initial content ideas are created, conducting a task or concept analyses is the next step. A task analysis is used primarily for analyzing items a learner must learn to do, such as behavior and skills; yet a content analysis is generally used for declarative knowledge such as verbal information, principles, and rules. All of these previous activities aided in analyzing the content. For the program to work as a whole, these ideas must be integrated in with knowledge possessed about how people learn. The authors suggest completing an instructional analysis. Instructional analysis includes identification of types of learning, identification of procedures to be learned, identification of subordinate and supportive skills, and integration of all of these into what they call a learning map. Eventually, the learning map becomes a preliminary program description of the content, sequences, and characteristics of a program in pictorial form.

Once all this information is gathered, the designers should develop a mock-up of the program that portrays the look and feel as well as the methodologies used in the program. This mock-up is generally called a prototype. Based on the prototype, the designers should create flowcharts, which show the structure and sequence of the program, and storyboards, which provide a visual representation of the design. In addition to these visual cues, multimedia products that include speech or video should produce scripts at this point. Scripts are primarily the text that is spoken. And finally, the last component of the design phase is the client sign-off, which provides valuable protection against the problem of project creep.

Application to my project

There is a lot to consider in the design phase. My client and I have already had several brainstorming sessions, so basically I need to develop a task analysis based on the content we established that we want to include. Based on the task analysis, I should precede with the remaining steps in the design phase—the preliminary program description, prototype, flowcharts, storyboards, etc. I doubt if I will need any scripts just yet.

Development is turning design into a living reality. It is often referred to as the entire process of producing, refining, and validating the program. Development requires a substantial amount of project management as far as time and costs are concerned. There are twelve steps in the development phase.

1. Prepare the text.
2. Writing the program code.
3. Create the graphics.
4. Produce audio and video.
5. Assemble the pieces.
6. Prepare support materials.
7. Do an alpha test.
8. Make revisions.
9. Do a beta test.
10. Make final revisions.
11. Obtain client sign-off.
12. Validate.

The text written in the design phase now should be made available to the development team (preferably in a word processor document). Text can be contained within the instructional program or stored externally in text files or a database. After the text is prepared, the next step is to write the program code. For complicated and sophisticated programs, it is best to hire an experience programmer. For simple multimedia programs, a less experienced programmer may be sufficient. Either way, it is strongly recommended to document the code in case someone needs to revise at a later date. In addition to the code, graphics must also be reated. Hopefully, careful planning ensures that all graphics in the program have the same level of richness and character. Graphics should also match the purpose of the program and image of the organization that will use the program and take into account the medium of delivery. Animations should also adhere to the same guidelines as graphics but should also be used sparingly and for important information. Producing video and audio almost follow the same guidelines as graphics; however, videos are used to illustrate human behavior in interpersonal situations and audio is usually combined with other visual stimuli for effectiveness. Normally, it is more expensive to produce high-quality videos than graphics or audio.

Once all the pieces of a program have been produced, they must be assembled, which normally the project manager oversees. The most important aspect of assembling the pieces is keeping track of version of the various assets. Because most programs require the use of external materials, such as learner, instructor, technical manuals, these materials must be prepared also at this time. In addition to the ongoing evaluation activities, most projects include at least two major tests of the software—alpha and beta. The alpha test is he major test of the program by the design and development team. The purpose of this test is to identify and then eliminate as many problems as possible. Revisions should be made based on the findings in the alpha test. After the revisions are implemented and the project team reviews the program again, the client should conduct a beta test, which is a full test of the final product. Beta testing is extremely similar to usability testing. Based on the beta test, final revisions will be made and the client will sign off on the final product. The final step in development is validating the program. Validation is the process of testing whether the program meets its goals in the real learning environment.

Application to my project

After reading this chapter, I realize how much work I have to do as one person. I have to wear many hats during this development phase because I don’t have an entire design or development team to work on this project. I already feel that I am stronger in some areas more than others; however, hopefully my careful planning and designing will benefit me when I get to this stage.

This appendix provides two storyboard forms that can be downloaded or copied for use. The first one is a basic format, and the other one is more for a product that has a substantial amount of audio. Utilizing storyboards is extremely important in the planning and design phase. It makes development run smoother and provides the client with a solid idea of what the final product will look like.

Application to my project

I come from a technical communication background, so I really believe in the importance of storyboarding. If you do it properly, it will save a lot of time and money in the long run. My client and I have already developed some paper and pencil storyboards in our meetings. I plan to use Microsoft PowerPoint to make more detail storyboards to possibly include navigation more in the design phase.

This appendix includes possible contents for instructor, learner, and technical manuals. There are some common features among all the manuals, but most manuals target a particular audience.

Application to my project

Since my client will be using the program in class, I will more than likely just provide her with an instructor manual (if she thinks it is necessary). I plan to design the program in such a way that it is extremely intuitive and will not need a lot of detailed explanations.

Usually, tutorials have a two-fold purpose: presenting or modeling information/skills and guiding the learner though initial use of the information or skills. There are seven instructional factors to consider when designing tutorials:

1. Introduction of the tutorial
2. Questions and responses
3. Judgment of responses
4. Feedback about responses
5. Remediation
6. Organization and sequence of program segments
7. Learner control in tutorials

The introduction of the tutorial is extremely important because it is sets the tone for the remainder of the tutorial. Within the introduction, the program must present the clear and concise objectives, stimulate prior knowledge, and sometimes provide pretests. The next major factor is questions and responses, which considers a lot including the four-part cycle: presenting information, questions and response, judge response, feedback or remediation. This cycle is essential to tutorials because it foster attention, recall, or provide information for branching decisions as questions interspersed throughout the content. The authors point out that tutorials that do not use the four-part cycle are simply electronic multimedia books—not tutorials. Alternate-response, multiple-choice, marking, true-false, matching, constructed-response, essay, completion, short-answer are all types of questions that could be utilized during a tutorial. How the learners respond to the questions must also be considered when thinking about the questions.

Judging is the process of evaluating a response to give feedback, to make the program sequence decisions, and to store performance data. There are a number of possible judgments for a response: correct, unexpected error, partially correct, and neutral. Judgment should depend on the type of questions asked and the type of responses the learners provided. After the responses are programmed, the learners should receive some type of feedback. The feedback should be positive and corrective, and it can be in the form text, graphics, audio, video, or markup. Another issue to consider with feedback is subsequent attempts. It is usually not beneficial to require the learner keep trying until he/she answers the question correctly.

Remediation refers to the more extensive presentation of information for the learner who is consistently not learning the material. The most common remediation procedure is to repeat information already seen; however, it is not the most elegant technique. Other techniques include restating information with new or simpler wording and providing new information or repeating old information with more details. The sequence of program segments depends in part on the nature of the information. There are four type of information including verbal information, concepts, rules and principles, and skills. Often, it is helpful to develop a flow chart to display the sequence of events for the learner.

The final factor to take into account in tutorials is learner control. Learners should be able to page throughout the program without difficulty. The page controls should always be obvious and easy and not timed. They should also be able to review and go backward in the program. The extent of paging backward can be tricky, and designers must consider the ramifications of this method. In addition, designers should also provide help for the learners. There are two categories: help on program operation and help on the content. All help should be easily viewable.

Application to my project

After reading this chapter, I admit that I had a misconception of a tutorial. In acutality, what I had in mind for my project was an electronic multimedia book with a game component at the end. I thought this was a tutorial because I was going to ask questions at the end of presenting the information and make it seem like a game. I did not realize this until after reading the difference between a multimedia book and a true tutorial. Now, I am reconsidering creating a well-designed tutorial utilizing the four-part cycle and eliminating the game component. Of course, I need to discuss this with my client first though. While reading this chapter, I came up with all types of good ideas for questions, feedback, and remediation. I’m extremely excited to start developing the product. This chapter has also pique my interest about educational games, so I plan on reading that chapter to see if I have enough time and skills to include it into my project.

The above summaries cover the required reading of the following textbook:

Alessi, S., & Trollip, S. (2001). Multimedia for Learning: Methods and Development (3rd ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon.